MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association) is the standard citation style for literature, languages, history, philosophy, and other humanities disciplines at UK universities. Like OSCOLA, it uses footnotes, but it also requires a separate bibliography at the end. Its most distinctive feature is the use of single quotation marks for article titles.
Footnotes + Bibliography
MHRA has two citation layers working together:
- Footnotes: full citation details appear in a numbered footnote the first time you cite each source
- Short forms: subsequent footnotes for the same source use a shortened form
- Bibliography: a complete alphabetical list of all sources appears at the end of the work
Footnote vs bibliography difference: In footnotes, the author's first name comes first. In the bibliography, the surname comes first (for alphabetical ordering). The format differs between the two. This is not a mistake, it's by design.
Books
Footnote format
Footnote. First citation
Firstname Lastname, Title of Book (Place: Publisher, Year), p. X.
Example
Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), p. 22.
Bibliography format
Bibliography entry (surname first)
Lastname, Firstname, Title of Book (Place: Publisher, Year)
Example
Eagleton, Terry, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983)
Note the difference: Footnotes have a page number (p. 22) and end with a period. Bibliography entries have no page number and use no period at the end.
Journal Articles
The most noticeable MHRA rule: article titles go in single quotation marks, not double quotes and not italics. Journal names are italicised.
Wrong
Terry Eagleton, "The Rise of English" (1983)
— double quotes for article title
Correct
Terry Eagleton, 'The Rise of English' (1983)
— single quotes for article title
Footnote format
Footnote. First citation
Firstname Lastname, 'Article Title', Journal Name, Volume.Issue (Year), Page–Page (p. X).
Example
Linda Nochlin, 'Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?', ARTnews, 69.9 (1971), 22–39 (p. 28).
Bibliography format
Bibliography entry
Lastname, Firstname, 'Article Title', Journal Name, Volume.Issue (Year), Page–Page
Example
Nochlin, Linda, 'Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?', ARTnews, 69.9 (1971), 22–39
Subsequent Citations
After the first full footnote, subsequent citations use a shortened form. Author surname + shortened title + page:
Subsequent footnote
Lastname, Short Title, p. X. (for books)
Lastname, 'Short Title', p. X. (for articles)
Lastname, 'Short Title', p. X. (for articles)
Examples
Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 45.
Nochlin, 'Women Artists', p. 31.
Nochlin, 'Women Artists', p. 31.
Can I use ibid.? MHRA allows ibid. when the very next footnote cites the exact same source. If anything else appears between the two citations, use the short form instead. Many tutors prefer short forms throughout. Check your institution's guidance.
Websites
Footnote
Firstname Lastname, 'Page Title', Site Name <URL> [accessed Day Month Year].
Example
John Mullan, 'How to Analyse a Novel', The Guardian <https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/nov/08/...> [accessed 12 March 2024].
Quick-Reference Rules
- QuotesSingle quotes for article and chapter titles. Double quotes only for quotes within quotes.
- ItalicsItalics for book titles, journal names, film/play titles, and works of art.
- PagesUse "p." for a single page and "pp." for a range: p. 45, pp. 45–52. Always include a pinpoint.
- EditionWrite edition as: 2nd edn, 3rd edn (not "2nd edition" or "2nd ed.")
- Multiple authorsFor 3+ authors in footnotes: Smith and others. In bibliography list all authors.
5 Common MHRA Mistakes
- ✗Double quotes for article titles: MHRA uses single quotes for article and chapter titles. Double quotes are for quotations within quotations only.
- ✗Same format for footnotes and bibliography: In footnotes, first name comes first (Firstname Lastname). In the bibliography, surname comes first (Lastname, Firstname). These must differ.
- ✗No page number in footnote: MHRA footnotes must include a pinpoint page number. "(p. 45)" for a single page, "(pp. 45–47)" for a range.
- ✗Overusing ibid.: ibid. is only valid when the very next footnote cites the identical source. If any other footnote intervenes, use the short form.
- ✗Missing bibliography: Unlike OSCOLA (footnotes only), MHRA requires a separate bibliography listing all sources alphabetically by surname.
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